Solar Cell Production Process: From Silicon to Sunlight Explained

As the search for sustainable energy continues, solar power stands out as one of the most promising options. At the heart of this technology is the solar cell, a device that converts sunlight directly into electricity.

This article explores the essentials of solar cells and panels—from their production process to the different sizes available—to help you determine the optimal size for your needs.

Solar Cell Production Process

Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, are small electronic devices that convert sunlight into electricity through the “photovoltaic effect.” They are the fundamental building blocks of solar panels, where multiple cells are assembled, connected with wires, and enclosed in a protective casing during the solar panel manufacturing process.

A solar cell consists of several layers of semiconductor materials, typically silicon. When sunlight strikes the cell, it excites electrons in the semiconductor, causing them to flow and generate an electric current.

The U.S. Department of Energy separates wafer production, cell fabrication and module assembly. Cell fabrication starts with wafers: surface preparation, junction formation, coatings and electrical contacts depend on the selected cell architecture. Passivation should not be treated as an optional extra that can simply be omitted from a specified modern process. Encapsulation of interconnected cells belongs to module assembly, not the same cell-fabrication sequence.

For a new factory, decide whether you will buy finished cells or manufacture them from wafers. These are different projects with different equipment, utilities and process skills. A stringer and laminator assemble cells into modules; they do not turn wafers into working solar cells.

Types Of Solar Cells

Solar cells come in several types, each with unique characteristics. The most common are monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin-film cells.

Monocrystalline Solar Cells

Monocrystalline solar cells are made from a single silicon crystal. Although the manufacturing process is slower and more expensive than for polycrystalline silicon, demand for monocrystalline cells continues to rise due to their superior performance.

Monocrystalline silicon offers a well-established combination of efficiency and manufacturing scale. It is not the highest-efficiency option across every cell technology. Compare the actual cell architecture, format, electrical ratings and price rather than assuming a fixed premium for the material alone.

Polycrystalline Solar Cells

Like their monocrystalline counterparts, polycrystalline solar cells are made from silicon. The key difference lies in the manufacturing process: instead of using a single crystal, polycrystalline cells are made by melting multiple silicon crystals together.

This method makes them cheaper to produce than monocrystalline cells, though it results in slightly lower efficiency.

Thin-Film Solar Cells

Thin-film solar cells are made by depositing a layer of photovoltaic material onto a substrate, such as glass, plastic, or metal. The photovoltaic absorber is deposited as a thin layer rather than cut as a silicon wafer. Thickness depends on the material and process; it is not universally a few nanometers. The Department of Energy cell overview describes CdTe and CIGS as distinct thin-film technologies.

This manufacturing method gives thin-film cells several advantages over crystalline cells: they are lighter, more flexible, and cheaper to produce.

However, thin-film solar cells are not as efficient as silicon-based cells. They come in various forms, including Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) and Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS), each with different levels of effectiveness and production costs.

You can learn more about the differences between monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin-film solar cells in our article exploring what solar panel types manufacturers can produce.

Others 

Other cell technologies are also in development, including organic and perovskite solar cells, which promise significant gains in efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

How Is a Solar Panel Made  

Once individual solar cells are manufactured, they are assembled into solar panels. This process involves several key steps:

1. Connect multiple cells in series or parallel to achieve the desired voltage and current.

2. Secure the electrical connections between cells and create pathways for current flow via soldering and tabbing.

3. Encase the string of cells in protective materials like glass and polymers for weatherproofing and durability.

4. Secure the encapsulated cells onto a sturdy frame for structural support.

5. Install a junction box to connect the panel’s output cables and provide safety features.

6. Conduct rigorous testing to ensure electrical performance, safety, and durability.

7. Properly package and ship the finished solar panel to its destination.

These steps are carried out by specialized equipment like stringers, tabbers, laminators, and layup machines. A more detailed explanation of the solar panel machines used in assembly is available.

Sizes Of Solar Panels

Cell count alone is not a purchasing specification. Full-cell, half-cell and other cut-cell designs can use different counts and interconnection layouts, so a larger printed cell count does not by itself establish higher power or suitability for a commercial roof.

Before ordering cells or specifying a module line, confirm:

• Cell format and cutting: physical dimensions, thickness and whether the delivered cells are already cut.
• Electrical compatibility: cell current and voltage bins, interconnection layout and target module ratings.
• Module envelope: finished dimensions, weight, glass construction and handling limits.
• Equipment compatibility: stringer tooling, layup layout and laminator working area for the intended product.

Use the finished module datasheet to check installation requirements. Use the agreed bill of materials and cell specification to check factory equipment, not a residential-versus-commercial rule based only on cell count.

Advanced Solar Panel Technologies

The drive to maximize energy output from a single panel has spurred significant research into new solar technologies. Some of the most exciting developments in the industry include bifacial solar panels, organic solar cells, tandem solar cells, and perovskite solar cells.

Bifacial Solar Panels

Bifacial solar panels are two-sided, allowing them to collect light and generate electricity from both their front and back surfaces. Under ideal lighting, with the right environmental conditions and a solar tracker, these panels can produce up to 25% more energy than conventional single-sided panels.

However, their higher initial cost and more complex installation requirements mean they are generally better suited for commercial applications, though they can be used residentially as well.

Perovskite Solar Cells

Perovskites are an emerging solar cell technology that shows great promise as a replacement for silicon. They are theoretically more efficient and cheaper to produce.

At present, however, perovskites have a shorter lifespan than silicon modules, and production complexities make them more expensive to manufacture, which has so far prevented mass production. Should these challenges be overcome, perovskite cells could offer a drastically cheaper and less resource-intensive alternative.

Tandem Solar Cells

Tandem solar cells are another emerging technology still in development. Their design involves stacking multiple layers of different semiconductor materials, where each layer absorbs a different wavelength of light to achieve higher overall efficiency.

Theoretically, tandem cells have a much higher efficiency rate than even monocrystalline silicon cells. While currently more expensive and complex to produce, ongoing technological advancements could make them a viable alternative to the silicon-based panels that dominate today’s market.

From Silicon to Sunlight: Download the full solar cell production process guide as a free PDF.